সুন্দরবন Sundorbôn
The Sundarbans (Bengali: সুন্দরবন Shundorbôn) is the largest single
block of tidal halophytic mangrove forest in the world.[1] The name
Sundarban can be literally translated as "beautiful jungle" or
"beautiful forest" in the Bengali language (Sundar, "beautiful" and
bans, "forest" or "jungle"). The name may have been derived from the
Sundari trees that are found in Sundarbans in large numbers.
Alternatively, it has been proposed that the name is a corruption of
Samudraban (Bengali: সমুদ্রবন Shomudrobôn "Sea Forest") or
Chandra-bandhe (name of a primitive tribe). But the generally accepted
view is the one associated with Sundari trees.[1]
The forest lies at
the feet of the Ganges and is spread across areas of Bangladesh and West
Bengal, India, forming the seaward fringe of the delta. The
seasonally-flooded Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests lie inland from
the mangrove forests. The forest covers 10,000 km2 of which about 6,000
are in Bangladesh.[2] It became inscribed as a UNESCO world heritage
site in 1997, but while the Bangladeshi and Indian portions constitute
the same continuous ecotope, these are separately listed in the UNESCO
world heritage list as the Sundarbans and Sundarbans National Park,
respectively. The Sundarbans is intersected by a complex network of
tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove
forests. The area is known for the eponymous Royal Bengal Tiger
(Panthera tigris tigris), as well as numerous fauna including species of
birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes. It is estimated that there
are now 500[citation needed] Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer
in the area. Sundarbans was designated a Ramsar site on May 21, 1992.
The fertile soils of the delta have been subject to intensive human use
for centuries, and the ecoregion has been mostly converted to intensive
agriculture, with few enclaves of forest remaining. The remaining
forests, together with the Sundarbans mangroves, are important habitat
for the endangered tiger. Additionally, the Sundarbans serves a crucial
function as a protective flood barrier for the millions of inhabitants
in and around Kolkata (Calcutta) against the result of cyclone activity.
History
During the Mughal period, local kings leased the forests of
the Sundarbans to residents. The legal status of the forests underwent a
series of changes, including the distinction of being the first
mangrove forest in the world to be brought under scientific management.
The area was mapped by the Surveyor General as early as 1764 following
soon after proprietary rights were obtained from the Mughal Emperor,
Alamgir II, by the East India Company in 1757. Systematic management of
this forest tract started in the 1860s after the establishment of a
Forest Department in the Province of Bengal, in India.
The first
Forest Management Division to have jurisdiction over the Sundarbans was
established in 1869. The Sundarbans was declared a reserved forest in
1875-76, under the Forest Act, 1865 (Act VIII of 1865). The first
management plan was written for the period 1893-98.[3][4] In 1875 a
large portion of the mangrove forests was declared as reserved forests
under the Forest Act, 1865 (Act VIII of 1865). The remaining portions of
forests was declared as reserve forest the following year and the
forest, which was so far was administered by the civil administration
district, was placed under the control of the Forest Department. A
Forest Division, which is the basic forest management and administration
unit, was created in 1879 with the headquarter in Khulna.
In 1911,
it was described as a tract of waste country which had never been
surveyed, nor had the census been extended to it. It then stretched for
about 165 miles (266 km) from the mouth of the Hugli to the mouth of the
Meghna and was bordered inland by the three settled districts of the 24
Parganas, Khulna and Backergunje. The total area (including water) was
estimated at 6,526 square miles (16,902 km2). It was a water-logged
jungle, in which tigers and other wild beasts abounded. Attempts at
reclamation had not been very successful. The characteristic tree was
the sundari (Heritiera littoralis), from which the name of the tract had
probably been derived. It yields a hard wood, used for building, and
for making boats, furniture, etc. The Sundarbans were everywhere
intersected by river channels and creeks, some of which afforded water
communication between Calcutta and the Brahmaputra Valley, both for
steamers and for native boats.
[edit] Physiography
This
satellite image shows the forest in the protected area. The Sundarbans
appears deep green, surrounded to the north by a landscape of
agricultural lands, which appear lighter green, towns, which appear tan,
and streams, which are blue.
A map of the Indian Sunderbans, showing the boundaries of the protected
areas, conservation and lodging centres, subsistence towns, and access
points
The mangrove-dominated Ganges Delta – the Sundarbans - is a
complex ecosystem comprising one of the three largest single tract of
mangrove forests of the world. Shared between two neighbouring
countries, Bangladesh and India, the larger part (62%)is situated in the
southwest corner of Bangladesh. To the south the forest meets the Bay
of Bengal; to the east it is bordered by the Baleswar River and to the
north there is a sharp interface with intensively cultivated land. The
natural drainage in the upstream areas, other than the main river
channels, is everywhere impeded by extensive embankments and polders.
The Sundarbans was originally measured (about 200 years ago) to be of
about 16,700 km². Now it has dwindled to about 1/3 of the original size.
The total land area today is 4,143 km² (including exposed sandbars: 42
km²) and the remaining water area of 1,874 km² encompasses rivers, small
streams and canals. Rivers in the Sundarbans are meeting places of salt
water and freshwater. Thus, it is a region of transition between the
freshwater of the rivers originating from the Ganges and the saline
water of the Bay of Bengal (Wahid et al.. 2002).
The Sundarbans along
the Bay of Bengal has evolved over the millennia through natural
deposition of upstream sediments accompanied by intertidal segregation.
The physiography is dominated by deltaic formations that include
innumerable drainage lines associated with surface and subaqueous
levees, splays and tidal flats. There are also marginal marshes above
mean tide level, tidal sandbars and islands with their networks of tidal
channels, subaqueous distal bars and proto-delta clays and silt
sediments. The Sundarbans' floor varies from 0.9 m to 2.11 m above sea
level.[5]
Biotic factors here play a significant role in physical
coastal evolution and for wildlife a variety of habitats have developed
including beaches, estuaries, permanent and semi-permanent swamps, tidal
flats, tidal creeks, coastal dunes, back dunes and levees. The mangrove
vegetation itself assists in the formation of new landmass and the
intertidal vegetation plays an important role in swamp morphology. The
activities of mangrove fauna in the intertidal mudflats develop
micromorphological features that trap and hold sediments to create a
substratum for mangrove seeds. The morphology and evolution of the
eolian dunes controlled by an abundance of xerophytic and halophytic
plants. Creepers and grasses and sedges stabilizes sand dunes and
uncompacted sediments.
The
Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests are a tropical moist broadleaf
forest ecoregion of India and Bangladesh.
It represents the brackish
swamp forests that lie behind the Sundarbans Mangroves where the
salinity is more pronounced. The freshwater ecoregion is an area where
the water is only slightly brackish and becomes quite fresh during the
rainy season, when the freshwater plumes from the Ganges and Brahmaputra
rivers push the intruding salt water out and also bring a deposit of
silt. It covers an area of 14,600 square kilometers (5,600 square miles)
of the vast Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta, extending from India's West
Bengal state into western Bangladesh. The Sundarbans freshwater swamp
forests lie between the upland Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous
forests and the brackish-water Sundarbans mangroves bordering the Bay of
Bengal.[7]
The fertile soils of the delta have been subject to
intensive human use for centuries, and the ecoregion has been mostly
converted to intensive agriculture, with few enclaves of forest
remaining. The remaining forests, together with the Sundarbans
mangroves, are important habitat for the endangered Bengal Tiger
(Panthera tigris).
In addition to the endangered tiger, there are
several other threatened mammal species, such as the capped langur
(Semnopithecus pileatus), smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata),
Oriental small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea), and great Indian civet
(Viverra zibetha). The ecoregion also contains the leopard (Panthera
pardus) and several smaller predators such as the jungle cat (Felis
chaus), fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus), and leopard cat
(Prionailurus bengalensis).[7]
This ecoregion is nearly extinct, the
victim of large-scale clearing and settlement to support one of the
densest human populations in Asia. Hundreds of years of habitation and
exploitation by one of the world's densest human populations have
exacted a heavy toll of this ecoregion's habitat and biodiversity. There
are two protected areas — Narendrapur (110 km2) and Ata Danga Baor (20
km2) that cover a mere 130 km2 of the ecoregion. Habitat loss in this
ecoregion is so extensive, and the remaining habitat is so fragmented,
that it is difficult to ascertain the composition of the original
vegetation of this ecoregion. According to Champion and Seth (1968), the
freshwater swamp forests are characterized by Heritiera minor,
Xylocarpus molluccensis, Bruguiera conjugata, Sonneratia apetala,
Avicennia officinalis, and Sonneratia caseolaris, with Pandanus
tectorius, Hibiscus tiliaceus, and Nipa fruticans along the fringing
banks.[7]
The Sundarbans Mangroves ecoregion is the world's largest
mangrove ecosystem, with 20,400 square kilometers (7,900 square miles)
of area covered.
Named after the dominant mangrove species Heritiera
fomes, locally known as sundri, it lies in the vast delta formed by the
confluence of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers across southern
Bangladesh and Indian state of West Bengal. This is the only mangrove
ecoregion that harbors the Indo-Pacific region's largest predator, the
Bengal Tiger. Unlike in other habitats, here tigers live and swim among
the mangrove islands, where they hunt scarce prey such as chital deer
(Cervus axis), barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), wild pig (Sus scrofa),
and even macaques (Macaca mulatta). Mangroves are a transition from the
marine to freshwater and terrestrial systems. They provide critical
habitat for numerous species of fishes and crustaceans that are adapted
to live, reproduce, and spend their juvenile lives among the tangled
mass of roots, known as pneumatophores, that grow upward from the
anaerobic mud to get the trees' supply of oxygen.[8]
Mangroves are
not diverse compared with most other terrestrial ecosystems. The
undisturbed forests have an unstratified, dense canopy and an
undergrowth made up of seedlings and saplings of the canopy trees.
In
the Sundarbans, the mangrove forests are characterized by Sundari, a
species valued for its timber. Other species that make up the forest
assemblage include Avicennia spp., Xylocarpus mekongensis, Xylocarpus
granatum, Sonneratia apetala, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Cereops decandra,
Aegiceras corniculatum, Rhizophora mucronata, and Nypa fruticans palms.
Several predators dwell in this labyrinth of channels. Two species of
crocodiles — Crocodylus porosus and Crocodylus palustris — dwell here,
as well as the Gangetic gavial (Gavialis gangeticus), and the water
monitor lizard (Varanus salvator) use both land and water to hunt and
bask in. Sharks and the Gangetic freshwater dolphins (Platanista
gangetica) inhabit the waterways. And several birds of prey patrol the
sky overhead. More cryptic but equally fascinating are the mudskippers, a
gobioid fish that climbs out of the water into mudflats and even climbs
trees. An abundance of crabs, hermit crabs, and shrimp scavenge among
the roots.[8]
As Bangladesh supports one of the world's highest human
population densities, the population pressure resulted in half of this
ecoregion's mangrove forests cut down to supply the fuelwood and other
natural resources extracted from these forests by this large population.
Despite the intense and large-scale exploitation, the ecoregion still
is one of the largest contiguous areas of mangroves in the world. There
are seven protected areas — Sajnakhali (2,090 km2), Sundarbans East (210
km2), Char Kukri-Mukri (30 km2), Sundarbans South (200 km2), Sundarbans
West (130 km2), Halliday Island (4 km2), Lothian Island (20 km2) — that
cover almost 2,700 km2, or 15 percent of the ecoregion. Among these
only Sajnakhali is large enough to support a space-dependent species
such as the tiger.[8]
Sundari tree
The Sundarbans flora is characterized by the abundance
of Heritiera fomes, Excoecaria agallocha, Ceriops decandra and
Sonneratia apetala.
A total 245 genera and 334 plant species were
recorded by David Prain in 1903.[10]
Since Prain’s report there have
been considerable changes in the status of various mangrove species and
taxonomic revision of the man-grove flora.[11] However, very little
exploration of the botanical nature of the Sundarbans has been made to
keep up with these changes. Whilst most of the mangroves in o
ther parts
of the world are characterized by members of the Rhizophoraceae,
Avicenneaceae or Laganculariaceae, the mangroves of Bangladesh are
dominated by the Sterculiaceae and Euphorbiaceae.[3]
The Bangladesh
mangrove vegetation of the Sundarbans differs greatly from other
non-deltaic coastal mangrove forest and upland forests associations.
Unlike the former, the Rhizophoraceae are of minor importance.
Differences in vegetation have been explained in terms of freshwater and
low salinity influences in the Northeast and variations in drainage and
siltation. The Sundarbans has been classified as a moist tropical
forest demonstrating a whole mosaic of seres, comprising primary
colonization on new accretions to more mature beach forests, often
conspicuously dominated by Keora (Sonneratia apetala) and tidal forests.
Historically three principal vegetation types have been recognized in
broad correlation with varying degrees of water salinity, freshwater
flushing and physiography and which are represented in the wildlife
sanctuaries:
Sundari and Gewa occur prominently throughout the area
with discontinuous distribution of Dhundul (Xylocarpus granatum) and
Kankra. Among grasses and Palms, Poresia coaractata, Myriostachya
wightiana, Imperata cylindrica, Phragmites karka, Nypa fruticans are
well distributed. Keora is an indicator species for newly accreted
mudbanks and is an important species for wildlife, especially spotted
deer (Axis axis). Besides the forest, there are extensive areas of
brackish and freshwater marshes, intertidal mudflats, sandflats, sand
dunes with typical dune vegetation, open grassland on sandy soils and
raised areas supporting a variety of terrestrial shrubs and trees.
Succession
is generally defined as the successive occupation of a site by
different plant communities.[12] In an accreting mudflats the outer
community along the sequence represents the pioneer community which is
gradually replaced by the next community representing the seral stages
and finally by a climax community typical of the climatic zone.[13]
Troup suggested that succession began in the newly accreted land created
by fresh deposits of eroded soil.[14]
The pioneer vegetation on
these newly accreted site is Sonneratia, followed by Avicennia and Nypa.
As the ground is elevated as a result of soil deposition, other trees
make their appearance. The most prevalent, though one of the late
species to appear, is Excoecaria. As the level of land rises through
accretion and the land is only occasionally flooded by tides, Heritiera
fomes begins to appear.
A crocodile at Sundarbans
A Royal Bengal tiger
The
Sundarbans is very rich in wildlife. The management of wildlife is
presently restricted to the protection of fauna from poaching and
designation of some areas as wildlife sanctuaries where no extraction of
forest produce is allowed and the wildlife face few disturbances.
Although the fauna of Bangladesh have diminished in recent times[3] and
the Sundarbans has not been spared from this decline, the mangrove
forest retains several good wildlife habitats and their associated
fauna. Of these the tiger and dolphin are target species for planning
wildlife management and tourism development. There are high profile and
vulnerable mammals living in two contrasting environments and their
statuses and management are strong indicators of the general condition
of wildlife and its management. The Sundarbans were home to
approximately 500 Bengal tigers in 2004[15], one of the largest single
populations of tigers.
Blue-eared Kingfisher sighted in the Sundarbans.
The
Sundarbans provide a unique ecosystem and wildlife habitat.
The river
terrapin (Batagur baska), Indian flap-shelled turtle (Lissemys
punctata), peacock soft-shelled turtle (Trionyx hurum), yellow monitor
(Varanus flavescens), water monitor (Varanus salvator), Indian python
(Python molurus) and the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) are some
of the resident species. Some of these species are protected by
legislation, notably by the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order,
1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973). Some species such as hog deer (Axis porcinus),
water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli), Javan
rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus), single horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros
unicornis) and the mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) have become
extinct in the Sundarbans at the beginning of the last century.[16]
Recent
studies revealed that the Bangladesh Sundarbans support diverse
biological resources including at least 120 species of commercially
important fishes, 270 species of birds, 42 species of mammals, 35
reptiles and eight amphibian species. This represents a
significant
proportion of the species present in Bangladesh (i.e. about 30% of the
reptiles, 37% the birds and 34% of the mammals) and includes a large
number of species which are now extinct elsewhere in the country.[17]
Two amphibians, 14 reptiles, 25 aves and five mammals are presently
endangered.[16] The Sundarbans is an important wintering area for
migrant water birds[18] and is an area suitable for watching and
studying avifauna.[19]
The Sundarbans were home to approximately 500
Bengal tigers in 2004[15], one of the largest single population of
tigers. Tiger attacks are frequent in the Sundarbans. Between 100 and
250 people are killed per year. However, owing to various measures taken
for safety, there have been no reports of deaths since 2004 in the
Indian portion of the Sundarbans[citation needed].
See also: Tiger attacks in the Sundarbans
[edit] Economy
Fishing boat in the Sundarbans
________________________________________
Logging boat in the Sundarbans
________________________________________
Ferry boat in the Sundarbans
The Sundarbans has a population of over 4 million[20] but much of it is mostly free of permanent human habitation.
The
Sundarbans play an important role in the economy of the southwestern
region of Bangladesh as well as in the national economy. It is the
single largest source of forest produce in the country. The forest
provides raw material for wood based industries. In addition to
traditional forest produce like timber, fuelwood, pulpwood etc., large
scale harvest of non wood forest products such as thatching materials,
honey, bees-wax, fish, crustacean and mollusk resources of the forest
takes place regularly. The vegetated tidal lands of the Sundarbans also
function as an essential habitat, nutrient producer, water purifier,
nutrient and sediment trap, storm barrier, shore stabilizer, energy
storage unit and aesthetic attraction.
The forest also has immense
protective and productive functions. Constituting 51% of the total
reserved forest estate of Bangladesh it contributes about 41% of total
forest revenue and accounts for about 45% of all timber and fuel wood
output of the country (FAO 1995). A number of industries (e.g. newsprint
mill, match factory, hardboard, boat building, furniture making) are
based on the raw material obtained from the Sundarbans ecosystem.
Various non-timber forest products and plantations help generate
considerable employment and income generation opportunities for at least
half a million poor coastal population. Besides production functions of
the forest, it provides natural protection to life and properties of
the coastal population in cyclone prone Bangladesh.
Despite human
habitations and economic exploitation of the forest, Sundarbans retained
a forest closure of about 70% according to the Overseas Development
Administration (ODA) of the United Kingdom in 1985.
Forest
inventories reveal a decline in standing volume of the two main
commercial mangrove species — sundari (Heritiera fomes) and gewa
(Excoecaria agallocha) — by 40% and 45% respectively between 1959 and
1983 (Forestal 1960 and ODA 1985). Also, despite a total ban on all
killing or capture of wildlife other than fish and some invertebrates,
there appears to be a pattern of depleted biodiversity or loss of
species (notably at least six mammals and one important reptile this
century), and that the "ecological quality of the original mangrove
forest is declining" (IUCN 1994).
[edit] Sanctuaries in Bangladesh
A Panaroma atop an observation post at Hiron Point Wild Life Sanctuary, Khulna Range, Bangladesh
The
Bangladesh part of the Sundarbans is estimated to be about 4,110 km²,
of which about 1,700 km² is occupied by waterbodies in the forms of
river, canals and creeks of width varying from a few meters to several
kilometers. The interconnected network of waterways makes almost every
corner of the forest accessible by boat. The forest lies under two
forest divisions, and four administrative ranges viz Chandpai,
Sarankhola, Khulna, and Burigoalini,Satkhira and has sixteen forest
stations. It is further divided into fifty-five compartments and nine
blocks.[1]
A new Khulna Forest Circle to preserve the forest was
created in 1993 and a Conservator of Forests has been posted. The direct
administrative head of the Division is the Divisional Forest Officer
who is also based at Khulna. The Divisional Forest Officer has a number
of professional, subprofessional and support staff and logistic supports
for the implementation of necessary management and administrative
activities. The basic unit of management is the compartment. There are
55 compartments in four Forest Ranges and these are clearly demarcated
mainly by natural features such as rives, canals and creeks.
There
are three wildlife sanctuaries established in 1977 under the Bangladesh
Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973). These are:
1.
Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary: Extends over an area of 31,227 ha.
Freshwater and Sundri (Heritiera fomes) dominate interspersed with Gewa
(Excoecaria agallocha) and Passur (Xylocarpus mekongensis) with Kankra
(Bruguiera gymnorrhiza) occurring in areas subject to more frequent
flooding. There is an understory of Shingra (Cynometra ramiflora) where,
soils are drier and Amur (Amoora cucullata) in wetter areas and Goran
(Ceriops decandra) in more saline places. Nypa palm (Nypa fruticans)
widespread along drainage lines.
2. Sundarbans South Wildlife
Sanctuary: Extends over an area of 36,970 ha. There is evidently the
greatest seasonal variation in salinity levels and possibly represents
an area of relatively longer duration of moderate salinity where Gewa is
the dominant woody species. It is often mixed with Sundri, which is
able to displace in circumstances such as artificially opened canopies
where Sundri does not regenerate as effectively. It is also frequently
associated with a dense understory of Goran and sometimes Passur.
3.
Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary: Extends over an area of 71,502 ha.
Includes areas which support sparse Gewa and dense stands of Goran and
discontinuous patches of Hantal palm (Phoenix paludosa) on drier ground
and river banks and levees.
The Sundarbans has been celebrated in numerous Bengali and Indian English novels, songs, and film.
The
Bengali folk epic Manasamangal mentions Netidhopani and has some
passages set in the Sunderbans during the heroine Behula's quest to
bring her husband Lakhindar back to life. Sundarbaney Arjan Sardar, a
novel by Shibshankar Mitra, and Padma Nadir Majhi, a novel by Manik
Bandopadhyay, are based on the rigors of lives of villagers and
fishermen in the Sunderbans region, and are woven into the Bengali
psyche to an extent. Part of the plot of Salman Rushdie's Booker Prize
winning novel, Midnight's Children is also set in the Sundarbans. Most
of the plot of prize-winning anthropologist Amitav Ghosh's 2004 novel,
The Hungry Tide, is set in the Sundarbans.
The Sunderbans has been
the subject of numerous non-fiction books, including the The Man-Eating
Tigers of Sundarbans by Sy Montegomery for a young audience, which was
shortlisted for the Dorothy Canfield Fisher Children's Book Award. The
area provides the setting for several novels by Emilio Salgari, (e.g.
The Mystery of the Black Jungle).
Padma Nadir Majhi was also made
into a movie by Goutam Ghose. Numerous documentary movies have been made
about the Sunderbans, including the 2003 IMAX production about the
Bengal Tiger - Shining Bright. The acclaimed BBC TV series Ganges
documents the lives of villagers, especially honey collectors, in the
Sundarbans.
The Sunderbans are celebrated through numerous Bengali
folk songs and dances, often centered around the folk heroes, gods and
goddesses specific to the Sunderbans (like Bonbibi and Dakshin Rai) and
to the Lower Gangetic Delta (like Manasa and Chand Sadagar).
এই উষ্ণতা
বৃদ্ধির ফলে সামুদ্রিক বাস্তুতন্ত্র হুমকির মুখে পড়ছে বলে জানানো হয়েছে
প্রতিবেদনটিতে। 
আরেকটি রেকর্ড
এবং আরেকটি জলবায়ু পরিবর্তনের কয়েক দশকের ধারা নতুন নতুন সীমায় পৌছাচ্ছে, আর এতে
শক্তি যোগাচ্ছে শক্তিশালী ২০১৫/২০১৬ এল নিনো।" 
চলতি বছরের প্রথম ছয়
মাসে বৈশ্বিক তাপমাত্রা ভেঙেছে অতীতের রেকর্ড। কার্বন ডাই-অক্সাইড নিঃসরণের
পরিমাণ বেড়ে যাওয়াই এর প্রধান কারণ বলে জানিয়েছে ওয়ার্ল্ড
মেটিওরোলোজিক্যাল অর্গানাইজেশন। এ অবস্থায় বৈশ্বিক উষ্ণায়ন কমাতে সই হওয়া
প্যারিস জলবায়ু চুক্তির যথাযথ বাস্তবায়নের আহ্বান জানিয়েছেন পরিবেশ
বিজ্ঞানীরা।
বছর বছর তাপমাত্রা ক্রমাগত বেড়ে যাওয়ার কারণ হিসেবে কার্বন ডাই-অক্সাইড
গ্যাসের নির্গমনকে দায়ী করেছে ওয়ার্ল্ড মেটিওরোলোজিক্যাল
অর্গানাইজেশন-ডব্লিউএমও।
নিঃসরণ
কমানোর সিদ্ধান্তগুলো দ্রুততার সঙ্গে বাস্তবায়নের উদ্যোগ নেয়া খুবই জরুরি।
